What’s Inside Fars Dignitaries Museum?

At the entrance, you will see the first (out of many) wax statue of Zinat-l-Molk, the last descendant of the first owners of the house, who used to dwell here before it was converted into a museum. What you will see at this museum is a series of wax statues of the most famous Persians, some posters, pictorial plaster panels, etc together with captions written both in Farsi and English for the visitors.

Who Are the Most Famous Persians?

Fars province is located at the heart of present-day Iran. It has been where Persians first settled and established the first Empire administered by Cyrus the Great. The museum displays the statues of kings, rulers, influential politicians, Sufis, learned figures, religious leaders, patriots, etc. So, it covers the major Fars dignitaries from first millennium B.C. till contemporary history. Here are some of the most outstanding ones quite well-known for all who have learned a little about Iranians and those who are the sources of pride for this nation:

Khashayar (Xerxes):

This Achaemenian emperor was the son of Darius the Great and Atusa, the daughter of Cyrus the Great. He was born in 521 B.C. In the beginning of his kingdom, he conquered Egypt and Babylon. After that he brought Greece under Persians which was the most historical event in Iran’s history.

He continued building a few more palaces in Persepolis. A lot of bass-relieves carved at his time persuade people to do good. He was killed in 466 B.C because of a conspiracy by his commanders.

Shapur:

One of the most famous Fars dignitaries is the mightiest Sassanian king, Shapur, the son of Ardeshir Babakan, the founder of the dynasty. Shapur was born in 241. The earliest wars between Iran and Rome started at his time. Shapur defeated Valerianus, the emperor of Rome, and ordered this to be carved on the face of the rocks.

He made a lot of efforts to develop Persia in various aspects. Many foreign books in medicin, astrology and philosophy were translated into Persian. The most famous Iranian university called Jundi Shapur was built by his order. Shāpur passed away in 273.

Hafez:

He is one of the world-class poets of Iran who was born in Shiraz in 1306. His father died when he was a child, he learned and memorized Qoran when he was young. That is why he has got Hafez as his pen-name. By word, Hafez means a person who knows something by heart. During that time he learned Arabic and became a master in commentary, philosophy and literature.

Goethe, the famous German poet has been inspired by Hafez. This Iranian poet is the master of composing ghazals in Persian poetry and stayed above everyone else till now. He was buried in Shiraz cemetery. Even after his death, dignitaries like Rabindranath Tagore visited his tomb to show their profound respect.

All his lifetime, he had focused on the value of pure heart, love and smartness in expressing his opposition to dominating politicians without getting into trouble. Therefore, his works are characterized by figurative style.

Sa’di:

He was one of the outstanding and the most powerful poets after Ferdosi in the way he used the Persian language. He was born in 1185. He had completed his primary studies in Shiraz before he went to Baghdad by the age of 20. While he was studying Arabic there, he started composing poems in Persian.

Afterward he began traveling to learn more. So, he went to Syria, Arabia,  Lebanese, Egypt, Rome, India and China. He got back to Shiraz in 1234  and soon wrote his two famous books “Boostan” and “Golestan”. He also wrote several other books and finally passed away in 1269. Sa’di was buried in his convent where he had several followers.

Karim Khan-e-Zand

Another famous figure in the Fars dignitaries museum is the founder of Zand dynasty who was very well-respected by all the people of Zand tribe. They supported him well in his military campaigns. He occupied Isfahan and showed his military might during a few other battles.

He governed all parts of Iran except Khorasan. The only war during his kingdom was the war of Basre and 2 revolts. He chose Shiraz as his capital and developed the city’s economy by building Vakil-Bazar, Vakil-Mosque, Vakil-Bathhouse, etc.

He shows a lot of respect to some of the previous Persian dignitaries through a series of projects like putting new stones on the tombs of  Shah-Shoja, Hafez and Sa’di’s. He passed away in 1193 and was buried in Kolah Farangi (Pars museum). His oldest son preceded him.

These decorative jewels were served as evidences for glory extravagance, power and wealth of the rulers over the past dynasties. Before Safavid dynasty, there were certain jewels kept in the royal treasury, but it was only during Safavid period that some foreign travelers started mentioning them in whatever they were writing. They were people like Jean-Baptiste Tavernier, Chevalier Chardin, the Shirley brothers, George Mainwaring and so forth.

The gem specialists of Safavid court brought fine and precious stones to the country from the markets of India, the Ottoman Empire and European countries like France and Italy. Later, many of them were looted, presented, bought and recollected as decades and centuries went by.

Eventually, in 1937, a major portion of the items available was transferred to Bank Melli Iran and formed part of the reserves for note issues and later became collateral for government liabilities to the Bank.

The building of the present collection was constructed in 1955. In 1960, by the establishment of Bank Markazi Iran, the treasury was transferred there and deposited with the Central Bank. Now it is also safeguarded by the Central bank of the Islamic republic of Iran. Because of all mentioned, this unparallel collection is so unique that certainly forms an unforgettable memory in any visitor’s mind. Even the most qualified experts of the world have not able to evaluate and estimate any total price for this breathtaking collection. It is really an incredibly fascinating collection worth visiting.

A Quick Look at the Objects in National Jewels Treasury

There are 37 showcases with hundreds of items in them. Here is only a general introduction of them and some worldly famous pieces:

• There are gold and jeweled objects like water pipes, dish-covers, flower vases, boxes, ewer and basins, knives, bowls, etc;
• There is displayed a gold decanter with outstanding enamel work containing pictures of flowers and birds. In the upper half, there are pictures of women. This decanter is considered one of the best examples of Iranian enamel work;
• There is also a pair of gold candlesticks decorated with spinals, diamonds, emeralds, rubies, tassels of pearls and emeralds are displayed;
• The coconut shaped jar of a water pipe made of a beautifully carved ostrich eggshell;
• Various objects decorated with Iranian turquoises like water pipe, aigrettes, swords, etc;
• Swords, daggers, quivers, rifles and laces beautifully jeweled and decorated;
• Various aigrettes encrusted with jewels;

• There are also numerous ornaments such as brooches, watch chains, aigrettes, buckles, necklaces, purses, armlets, and bracelets;

• The “Samarian spinal” weighing 500 carats, the largest known spinal of the world, which is said to be used to adorn the neck of the Golden calf, according to legends;
• There are tassels of pearls, totally weighing 16 Kg used as curtain decorations;
• There are lots of gold coins and commemorative medals that could be found on various occasions;
• There are also hand-woven robes decorated with precious stones;
• “Nader throne” is another breathtaking item composed of 12 separate and portable parts. The total number of precious stones set on the throne amounts to 26,733;
• “Abbas Mirza’s head piece” made of red satin and velvet cloth sown with pearls and gold sequins is another object used on official occasions;
• There are 62 different cuts of the diamonds, from the most simple to very rare cuts like the jubilee and briolette;
• There can also be visited several high quality blue sapphires the largest of which is the one weighing 141.91 carats;
• “Iranian Yellows”, which are enormous diamonds purchased by Nasser-ed-din Shah on his third trip to Europe from Cape mines of South Africa, are also displayed;
• There are jewels assigned for the use of the Pahlavi family, Farah Pahlavi, the queen mother, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi and other members of Pahlavi dynasty;
• There have been displayed crowns like the ones used by Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, Qajar kings (Kiany Crown), Farah Pahlavi’s crown;
• There is a unique piece called “Darya-ye-Noor” or sea of light, the largest pink diamond of the world. It is approximately 182 carats with a rare color among diamonds, pale pink;

• Another piece that is consider to be “Kooh-e-Noor” or mountain of light together with the previous one, were both in the possession of Nader Shah. Later, the latter one was taken to Afghanistan and after being passed into other people’s possession, it was presented Queen Victoria. Now it is in the queen mother’s crown in England; and,

• “Nader’s Aigrette”, set with diamonds and emeralds, weighing 781 carats.

Written By: Rahman Mehraby

It was first the summer residence of Qajar kings, and then turned into Reza Shah’s summer residence following expansion and annexation of some other quarters.

On various occasions, villa-palaces and mansions were erected on the beautiful range among aged cypresses and aspens, in almost the vicinity of the remnants of aged and weather beaten Qajar mansions the facades of which were constructed in bricks.

In the course of time, they numbered 18, each in a different architectural style and technique. After the Islamic Revolution, palaces were changed into museums in a suitable way to represent the finest works of art from Iranian and non-Iranian artists to the large number of visitors.

Today, there are 10 museums open to the public as follow:

1. Green palace: It is the first palace built in the complex during Pahlavi dynasty by Reza Shah’s order. The building is called green palace because of the color of its facade. The palace is a very nice museum of Persian arts like mirror marquetry, carpets, and illumination and plaster work. It was served as Mohammad Reza’s private palace where some private meetings were held before the Islamic Revolution.

2. Nation’s palace: In two stories, different small and large rooms were served as residence and office of Reza Shah Pahlavi and his son. Rooms were used as sitting room, waiting room, reception hall, dinning hall and bedroom. There are some works of art like figurines and chinaware are kept in showcases. Furniture, chandeliers and paintings are European made. There are four big mural painting the subjects of which are Iranian myths.

3. Nations’ museum: This collection consists of various works of art purchased from other countries and represents the civilizations of pre-Islam Iranian, African, Indian, far east, Eskimos, Mayas and contemporary arts of Iranian as well as non-Iranian artists.

4. Fine arts museum: The major part of the paintings in this collection are the oil paintings of Safavid, Afshar, Zand and Qajar periods collected by Mohammad Reza Pahlavi’s last wife, Farah, from an English collectioner called Harold Emmer. The paintings have been arranged on 3 floors: 1) First floor, teahouse painting by contemporary Iranian artists, 2) second floor, various historical periods paintings mentioned above, and 3) Third floor, European works presented to Farah or bought by her.

5. Behzad museum: This museum is devoted to the miniatures painted by Hossein Behzad (1895-1968) who made a revolution in Iranian painting. Studying European art and being inspired by Kamal-ed-din Behzad and Reza Abbasy, he introduced a new style of miniature on paper, hard paper or fiberboard. This style is purely Iranian, but it has kept on with its contemporary paces and changes of art in universal art schools.

6. Abkar museum: The miniatures in this museum are works of a 20th century artist called Klara Abkar who had her particular style in painting. Her source of inspiration was the rich Iranian literature and mysticism. Her works take the visitors to a world of spirituality and a poem-like or light-music-like harmony that give everyone’s eyes peace and tranquility.

7. Mir Emad museum: The main subject of this museum is the most prominent post-Islam Iranian art namely calligraphy. On paper and parchment, there are plenty of various calligraphic styles of writing belonging to 10th to 19th centuries. Mir Emad, himself, the most well known 18th century’s calligrapher, has been introduced by his works. In some cases, some calligraphy-related arts like illumination, painting, etc are exhibited.

8. Museum of anthropology: The lifestyle and customs of Iranians through the history are displayed from cultural perspective. In a vast area and of two floors, various objects are exhibited like tools for irrigation, agriculture, husbandry, fishing and hunting as well as agricultural documents, clothes, lighting tools and handicrafts.

9. Water museum: This museum in an exhibition of ancient and traditional techniques and instruments for water supplement and distribution. Various water-related vernacular structures are introduced like water reservoirs and traditional icehouses. Some ancient water dams and royal orders concerning them are presented as well.

10. Military museum: the objects of the museum are displayed on two floors. The military uniforms of Achaemenians up to the present time are exhibited. The weaponry on display consists of some unsophisticated ones used in the ancient times until the firearms period’s. Part of the history of Iraqi-imposed war against Iran (1980-1988) is also exposed to visitors.

Visiting this complex of palaces can serve as an introductory step to be familiar with various historical, cultural and artistic aspects of Iran.

Written By: Rahman Mehraby

The first Building, the older one, houses pre-Islam era’s objects and was built in 1937 by Reza Shah’s order. The second Building was allocated to post-Islam era’s objects. The second building was transformed into a museum after the Islamic Revolution in Iran, 1979.

All the objects on display in this museum have been systematically unearthed. So, we know where the site is and who the excavator is. No object has been bought to be exhibited in this museum. All the objects have been arranged chronologically. This complex consists of the national library and a bookstore too.

Pre-Islam Building at National Museum of Iran

The oldest objects on display date back to prehistoric eras. There is a three dimensional map at the beginning of the hall of the first Building on which one can see all parts of Iran. Then, very ancient collections of potteries are displayed beginning from the 5th millennium B.C, decorated very uncomplicatedly. The potteries are in three different colors: red, buff and black.

There are also various types of seals, clay tablets, figurines and ornaments. Bone-made and alabaster-made objects are also on display.

The next series of objects are bronze works of the north, northwest and Luristan province. In Luristan bronze works’ section, there can be visited samples of various kinds of objects used either in everyday life or ceremonies.

There are also rhytons of various shapes and materials displayed next to each other.

In Achaemenians’ section, there are stone bass relieves, glazed bricks, stone wares, bronze works, stairways, statues, columns, inscriptions and figurines.

One can notice the Hellenistic influence in Iranian art right after the Achaemenian section. There are lapis lazuli, potteries, stone and bone made objects in Seleucid period section reflecting this influence in some objects. More influence can be seen in the next section, Parthian period, where Greek gods are displayed in form of figurines.

There are also glass wares, potteries, stucco and stone relieves ornaments and ceramics in display in this section.

The last section in the first Building is allocated to Sassanian era, 3rd to 7th century A.D, where one can see glass wares, bronze works, stucco relieves, mosaic decoration, potteries, ceramics, ornaments and figurines.

Post-Islam Building of National Museum of Iran

There are three floors in this building. There is a showcase at the entrance of the first floor displaying one of the oldest mosques in Iran, Tari Khaneh, meaning the house of God. On the second floor, there are galleries around a hall for post-Islam arts. The third floor houses post-Islam architecture.

Arts’ Hall at Iran Bastan Museum, Post-Islam Building

Since the central theme of the post-Islam period, beginning since 7th century A.D, is Koran, there is a central section in the arts’ hall with various Korans on paper and parchment together with a mehrab, a recessed wall directing visitors toward the Black Cube in Mecca.

There are also different galleries in each of which the objects belonging to one field of art are displayed as follows:

Lights: displaying candlesticks and oil lamps in glass, brass, ceramic, pottery and stone.

Carpets & Textiles: displaying various materials used for textiles and the different techniques to create works of art on them as well as carpets, grave covers, ceremonial shirts bearing specific prayers in special calligraphic styles.

Astronomical instruments & Zodiac signs: displaying brass or bronze astrolabes, manuscripts, books, globe, miniature and oil painting in related themes.

Ceramics: displaying plates, vessels, ewers, dishes, bowls, oil lamps and bottles in different shapes.

Glass and medical instruments: displaying glass cupping tools, test tubes, test bowls, test bottles, perfume holders, decanters, sprinklers, lamps, rhytons, manuscripts, etc.

Metal works: displaying swords, bowls, ewers, vases, braziers, caldrons, jugs, armlets, bracelets, mirrors and their frames, water pipe bases and heads, candlesticks, cups, basins, incense burners, mortars, pen boxes, knives, boxes, lamps, trays and ladles in different metals and techniques, etc.

Lacquer painting & writing instruments: displaying pen boxes, inkwells, writing sets, mirror frames, make up boxes, manuscripts, etc.

Architecture Hall at Iran Bastan Museum, Post-Islam Building

In the architecture floor, there are also different galleries each belonging to one of the post-Islam periods’ dynasties where one can see the evolution of architecture in Islamic buildings together with the arts implemented on them. The sections are as follow:

The early post-Islam period: displaying a map of the Islamic World, stucco works decorating the walls and mehrabs.

11th & 12th centuries: displaying stucco works, brick works, stone works, brick inscriptions, glazed bricks and tiles, a wooden fretted door, some well-decorated mehrabs, as well as a big jar that is luster painted.

13th & 14th centuries: displaying luster painted star tiles, turquoise tiles, indigo-colored leaf gilded tiles, turquoise-colored leaf gilded tiles, cross-shaped tiles, a fretted pulpit called menbar in Islamic terms and two beautiful mehrabs, one in stucco and the other in luster painting art.

15th to 17th centuries: displaying mosaic inscriptions, under glaze painted tiles, an inscribed marble mehrab, a mosaic inscribed mehrab and a wooden fretted work subtly inscribed with prayers.

18th & 19th centuries: displaying a wooden inlaid and mirror worked door, a wooden inlaid door and a polychrome mosaic inscription.

Also, there are many showcases in this hall displaying various works of art including coins of different eras.

Written By: Rahman Mehraby

The building was built during Qajar dynasty and used for the administration purposes by the times’ chancellor and prime minister. Before and after that it was dedicated to the objects presented by the Ottoman Sultans, temporary exhibitions and the head office of museums.

Since 1968, ethnological museum was transferred to this building. The first floor houses the administrative section, a library and exhibition hall. The second floor is also used to display the museum objects.

In fact, the overwhelmingly comprehensive sets of objects in this museum represent the traditional life and the atmosphere prevailed in different stages of history in Iran. Some of the objects can be found in toady’s real life situations, but it is a privilege to be familiar with such a wide range of objects at a time in one building.

Here is a brief explanation of what can be visited in this museum:

The First Floor of the Museum of Anthropology

In various showcases, one can see: women in rural areas, stone-made objects used in everyday life, tiles, inlaid wooden works, metal-made locks, glassware, block printed textile, marriage documents, stationery, oil lamps, dervishes’ belongings, traditional music instruments, marriage napery, make up tools, various traditional smoking stuff, traditional coffee shops, old sash doors, etc.

The Second Floor of the Museum of Anthropology

The objects on display are: paintings showing life situations, horse riding stuff, weaponry, footwear, etc.

Ashoora hall is a hall for displaying the traditional religious ceremonies on oil paintings together with symbols, nakhl, kotal and other local objects used in the ceremonies.

There are also various traditional life situations visualized by dolls, tents, animals, household appliances, gyms, etc in a separate room. In another section, textiles made by hand by different techniques are exhibited. Besides, local dressings and costumes of all corners of Iran are displayed. Bakery, cloth weaving loom, etc are also exhibited in the same section.

Written By: Rahman Mehraby

The objects exhibited in this museum, which is also called Abgineh Museum, belong to a span of time beginning from pre-Islam period up to the contemporary Iran.

Different Sections of Abgineh Museum

There is plenty of exquisite plasterwork performed by Iranian masters on the interior walls of the building. On the first floor, at the beginning of the visit to the museum, there is a hall with a showcase in the ground at the entrance to draw visitors’ attention to a symbolic location of archaeological site under excavation. On the walls, there can be seen maps and ancient regions on the Iranian plateau as well as a very useful timetable of ancient civilizations. The museum objects, in general, can be divided into five categories each in a different hall:

1. Enamel gallery: The potteries in this collection consist of some samples of plain clay vessels belonging to B.C period having angular and animal patterns. On some artifacts, the early examples of glass glazes dating back to the 3rd millennium B.C can be found. The collection of Chogha Zanbil temple glass tubes as well as opaque perfume holders, ornaments and seals exhibited belong to the 1st and 2nd millennium B.C.

2. Crystal gallery: In this gallery, Achaemenian and Parthian period cut crystal vessels and bottles are displayed for visitors. Various vessels of Sassanian and post-Islam period are also added to this collection bearing molded, applied, pressed and cut decorations.

3. Nacre gallery: The evolution of Sassanian period’s arts and techniques are observed here. Some samples of 9th to 13th centuries A.D are also exhibited in this gallery. In fact, the flourishing period of glassware and pottery is presented in the showcases here.

4. Gold gallery: The artifacts presented in this gallery consist of the enameled and luster inscribed vessels of the 10th to 13th centuries. The inscriptions are generally of subjects like expressions, good prayers and poems of Nezamy and Ferdosy. Patterns are mainly human figures in various ceremonies and animals specially birds.

5. Lapis-lazuli galleries 1&2: Following destruction imposed on the centers of glass and pottery making in Iran, Safavid king, Shah Abbas I, initiated the revival of these two industries and enhanced it with Chinese and Italian artists helps. The objects of these two galleries are the evidences for changes in the form and decorations of glassware and pottery artifacts using lapis-lazuli stones. Vases, sprinklers and ewers in lapis lazuli and light orange colors are Shiraz and Esfehan products.

There is also some crystal made vessels of the 18th and 19th centuries from Europe exhibited in a separate showcase. There is also a library in the north west of the gardens surrounding the Abgineh museum having approximately 3000 volumes of books in Farsi and English on archaeology, history, arts, etc for students and researchers.

Written By: Rahman Mehraby

This museum has been open to visitors since 1979. The facade of the museum resembles the carpet-weaving loom. It also comprises of two floors to display different kinds of carpets, kilims and handmade rugs.

Two Floors of Carpet Museum in Tehran

The first floor hall is devoted to permanent exhibition and the second one to temporary exhibitions of carpets or carpet-related subjects. Most often, the oldest pieces belong to Safavid period. There are also more recent ones.

Some traditional and very rare designs and patterns are found among the carpets. Portrait, multi-panel, botteh, triangular citron and animal design carpets are among various designs found in the collection. Also, sometimes the so-called Polish carpets are on display. They are the carpets made in Iran, but known as made in Poland.

The above mentioned and all other famous pieces have been made at the main centers of carpet making like Kashan, Kerman, Esfehan, Tabriz, Khorasan, Kurdistan and so forth.

At the entrance to the main hall of the first floor, there are a map of the most well-known carpet making centers of Iran, a showcase of various weaving tools, a showcase of some dying natural material as well as dyed threads and a vertical carpet-weaving loom. From time to time, someone sits at the loom and visitors can see how a carpet is woven.

Other Facilities of Tehran Carpet Museum

There are some other facilities in the museum including a library with around 7000 books, which are available to researchers and enthusiast and a movie-house in which specialized films in the field of knotting carpet and designing kilim motifs can be watched. To preserve the carpet-related arts and techniques, the museum has different classes for teaching carpet making, designing, repairing and darning.

Written By: Rahman Mehraby

Iranians were influenced by Semites, Babylonians and Assyrians’ incantation sayings, magic and spells. Zarathustra rose against such superstitions and the beliefs of Iranian plateau local people like worshiping the Sun, the Moon and stars.

Ancient Iranians believed in dualism, life after death and rewards for human deeds. Aryans also believed in animism and fetishism. The influences of these beliefs are still observed in modern-day Iranians’ beliefs and superstitions.

Various Nations’ Beliefs

What we surely know about Elamites’ religion is the fact that they believed in a great god called Shushinak. Scythians were highly civilized and religious who believed in one heavenly power, but had various idols as well.

Aryans believed in a series of good beings that had presented the treasures of nature to human beings the most important of which were light and rain. They also believed in a series of bad beings struggling with good ones and trying to block humans from getting to prosperity.

In general, Aryans’ beliefs led them toward a better code of ethics compared to Babylonians and Assyrians. They relied more on a combination of human endeavor and action with honesty and righteousness. Aryans worshiped Mithra (the goddess of the Sun), Ashi (the goddess of fertility and marriage), Verethraghna (the god of attack and victory), Mazda (the great god of eastern and western settled, civilized Iranians), and several minor gods and goddesses.

Medes’ religion was very much identical with Hoorians’ and Assyrians’, especially according to the sphinxes discovered in their regions. Magi held religious ceremonies for Medes and later for Persians.

Religions during Pre-Islam Iran

In Achaemenians’ era, under Persians, all subject nations were free to believe in any religions and there was not any religion recognized officially by kings. The majority of people believed in four holy elements: light, water, earth and air. When Cyrus the great defeated Nebuchadnezzar, the captive Jews of Babylonia were freed by the Persian king and rendered helps to go back to Jerusalem to rebuild their temple. Undoubtedly, Jews owed their survival to Iranians. According to Old Testament, a group of them migrated to Iran at about 8th century B.C. Xerxes’ minister, later, prosecuted them.

Parthians’ religion was a combination of the religions of pre-Achaemenian Aryans, Zarathustra and Greek-influenced Seleucids. Mithraism was more popular among them.

After Alexander’s invasion to Iran and Seleucid dynasty till Parthians’ period, Buddhism found followers in Iran and stopped being practiced toward the end of Samanids.

During Sassanians, kings recognized Zoroastrianism as the official religion. The holy book of Zoroastrians, Avesta, was destroyed by Arabs’ invasion, but later could have been partly recollected and rewritten. It was written in Pahlavi. Later, it was interpreted in a book called Zand. Pazand was also written later to explain Zand in Dary Persian. All through the history, Zoroastrians have believed in three principles: good thought, good words and good deeds.

During the first half of the 3rd century A.D, an Iranian noble man called “Mani”, started Manichaeism. He declared his mission and began from Persia and found some followers from Syria, Egypt, North Africa to France and Spain. In the 2nd half of the same century, he was killed in Sassanians’ prison. He wrote six books in east Aramaic and Pahlavi.

“Mazdak” started his religious, political movement around the end of 5th and the beginning of 6th centuries A.D. He was killed when he had been taking part in a royal discussion meeting. His death won plenty of respect for his religion as well as Zoroastrianism.

At the end of Sassanians’ era, some other Jews had joined the ones in Iran. Christians grew in number during Parthians and found many followers, especially in Armenia during Sassanians and Romanians.

“Zorvanism”, the belief in the god called Zorvan, is not that much different from Zoroastrianism. It was practiced simultaneously with Zoroastrianism during Sassanians. This religion, like Manichaeism, Mazdaism and Christianity, was banned during Sassanians and the followers were prosecuted.

Religions during Post-Islam Iran

After Arabs’ invasion, the Iranian followers of Zoroastrianism were divided into three groups:

1. Those who converted to Islam,

2. Those who did not convert and migrated to India, and

3. Those who stayed in their homeland and kept believing in their own religions.

Zoroastrianism has gone through many changes since 14 centuries ago, but the main doctrine has remained intact.

There were two large mighty powers in the world when Islam emerged: Romans and Iranians. Sassanians were defeated by Arabs bringing a new religion, Islam.

After Mohammad was inspired by Allah to invite people to worship one true God, he obeyed God’s order and followed it for three years behind scenes.

Later he invited people in the public. After successive years of hard life and prosecutions, he decided to move from Mecca to Medina. Eight years later, he moved back to Mecca leading a large army of Muslims.

During his life, Mohammad united Arabs in the Arabia peninsula and founded a religious government that later extended its borders eastward, westward and northward.

At last, Islam has turned to be one of the most popular religions all over the world. The majority of the worlds’ Muslims are Sunni Muslims while Shiites are the minority. The followers of the latter branch form the majority of Muslims in Iran at present.

Later, under Mongols, Christians were well liked by early Ilkhanid kings, but latter kings prosecuted them. Nestorianism started in Ephesus, grew at the border area between Roman and Iranian Empires, found many followers in Iran and put a strong impact on the Christians of next centuries in Iran.

Mongols’ invasion to Iran ended in a kind of freedom in choosing religion. As a result, Abbasid caliphate collapsed in Iran and Shiite branch started to grow. Mysticism also started to attract many during Ilkhanid dynasty.

During Safavids, Zoroastrians were forced to pay special taxes, because they had not converted to Islam. In addition, some taxes placed on their business activities were a lot more than those placed on Muslims.

The Shiite branch had been divided into two branched, 12-Imam Shiites and 7-Imam Shiites. The first branch grew stronger and stronger up until Safavid period when this branch was announced as official branch of Islam in Iran. This happened when the majority of the Iranians were Sunnis. But, since Ottomans were Sunni, the first Safavid king, Ismail wanted to unite the whole nation against the foreign threat. Inside the country, Jews and Zoroastrians were not treated fairly. Christians enjoyed a little more advantages. Later during shah Abbas I, a large number of Christians migrated to Iran.

Under Afsharid dynasty, Nader Shah inherited an era of politics mixed with religion. He tried to win people’s hearts by paying respect to Shiite doctrine and the holy shrine of eight Imam, Reza, in Mashad. During Afsharid dynasty, Kashan turned into a small Jerusalem for Jewish Iranians and their clergymen. Business also flourished the town and lots of wealth was produced during Nader.

Karim Khan, the Zand king, rendered more freedom to non-Muslims. He respected religion, but did not let Muslim clergymen be seriously involved in politics.

Iranian society under Qajar dynasty was religious-oriented. Family morale, business and social interactions were all based on Islam. More than any other periods in Iranian history, Qajar kings paid plenty of attention to Imam Hossein’s martyrdom and his commemorative ceremonies.

Zoroastrians and Christians were not under much governmental pressure, but Jews were not treated likewise. They could have been forced easily to pay more and more taxes.

The Shiite branch of Islam has been divided into many sub-branches itself, but today, Twelvers are the majority of Iranian Muslims. The other branches are diminishingly decreased in number.

Conclusion

As one can simply conclude, religion has always played a key role in Iran’s history, both in people’s attitudes and in the ruling system of governments in various periods of time. Almost every aspect of Iranians’ lives was under direct or indirect impact of their religion. This is a concrete fact easily observed in every aspect of Iranians’ lives.

Written By: Rahman Mehraby

In such annual or seasonal migration, nomads move from their winter resort locations to summer grazing lands with their animals and move back to their winter resort locations again when it gets cold.

The Beginning of Nomadic Life

Migration has started since many centuries ago. It began with a very simple form, but moving from place to place is still the fixed feature of such life style.

Researches on migrating way of life indicate that this phenomenon exists mostly in semi-dried and marginal territories, i.e. in areas where there is not any suitable piece of land for farming like slopes or stony grounds.

There are various theories concerning the causes of such a way of life. Reference can be made to some of them like the increase of population and expansion of agriculture, economic structure of a given society, social and political situations and ecological factors.

Two Kinds of Migration

There are two kinds of migration:

• Horizontal migration occurs in dry, flat, vast deserts where water and grass can scarcely be found, like in Saudi Arabia‘s deserts.
• Vertical migration occurs in regions with large difference in altitude where people move from low altitudes to higher ones in search of more favorable weather for their families and their animals, like in Iran.

Gypsies vs. Nomads

They are wandering in small and large groups in many parts of the world. Although we do not precisely know their history, it seems that they have originated from India. The color of their skin and their accent make us think so. In Iran, peddling is their way of life. Gypsies also make metal tools like knives and sickles and repair some farming tools. They often pitch tents near villages and exchange goods for goods and, at times, for cash with villagers.

Some of gypsies are wandering musicians appearing to people while harvesting or wedding and skillfully play a few pieces of music, make them happy and earn some crops and go away.

They are not dependent upon lands or animals and have no clear plans for migration. Sometimes, they do not go back to where they have started traveling from.

Relation between Migrant & Settled People

The differences between villagers and nomads’ ways of life have frequently ended in quarreling and at times in dependence upon each other. Nomads could have been a major threat to villagers and could have been an essential factor to satisfy their needs.

Migrants, Semi-Migrants & Settled Tribes

Some tribes are merely tent dwellers and move in search of grazing lands for their herds. Other tribes are both living in tents and in some specific buildings. Agriculture is another minor thing they do for their needs. The third group has gone through previous stages and has settled at last as a result of decline in traditional cattle herding.

Large & Small Tribes

Large tribes are known as Turkmen, Shahsavans, Lurs, Bakhtiaries, and Qashqaies. Others are considered small tribes who had to settle in the past. Many of them have no other choice than to start migrating again. Of course, they have their own reasons for this.

Nomads in History

In many cases, nomads have had key roles in war with enemies. Sometimes, they were united as an independent army or an auxiliary force. The history of Iran witnesses many cases of their decisive assistance in defending the country.

The Social Structure of Nomadic Societies

As a unit of social life, a tribe has many duties to accomplish. A system is needed to connect a family to the whole tribe. This tribal organization is vital to integrate a tribe from within itself.

One of the subdivisions of a tribe is a “family”. The emotional links functioning inside and outside the families are links called “ethnic solidarity”, which is much stronger than among settled families.

In nomadic societies, a tribal family with its own definition and functions is distinguished from what we know, nowadays, as a family in modernized societies. A tribal family cannot mean anything without a wife and cannot perform its duties. In such a family, the whole family matters, not every individual member. This is the survival code of a tribal family.

“Polygamy” is sometimes seen among tribes. Another wife is another source of assistance the head of a family needs to manage the broadened responsibilities. Of course, this is how it is described by tribal men, but there should be other reasons for this phenomenon too.

Job Description in Nomadic Families

A husband, a wife and a child are each helping the family course of existence to go on. Even children have their own job descriptions from childhood that depend on their sexes. They learn and practice the serious life of being an adult.

Social Structure Classifications

Heads of tribes and guard heads are the wealthiest. Middle-class people are headmen, elders and similar ranks. The ordinary people are the majority who live hard lives.

Each group has its own different responsibility, property and characteristics. Sometimes, one can say which class they belong to by looking at the color and appearance of their tents.

Written By: Rahman Mehraby

Most of our information about Iranian myths come from two sources:

1. Avesta, the holy book of Zoroastrians, and
2. Shahnameh, Ferdosy’s epics work in verse.

Ancient Iranian gods

Ahuramazda is a wise master, ultimate God, absolute good, wisdom and recognition, the creator of the Sun, stars, darkness and light, human beings and animals and all mental and physical activities. Ahriman is an evil spirit, the opposite of Ahuramazda who always tries to destroy the truth and world and harms human beings and animals.

In this world, life is a reflection of universal struggle between Ahuramazda and Ahriman. All men must choose either of these too.

Anahita is the goddess of all waters on the earth and the source of all oceans in the universe. She is on a chariot being drawn by four horses: wind, rain, cloud and hail. Because of Anahita’s connection with life, warriors ask her to keep them alive and give them victory during wars.

Verethraghna is the god of warriors and assaulters and is the source of victorious power against demons. Ahuramazda advised Zoroaster to take a feather of Verethraghna from a bird’s body while trapped in adversary’s magic.

Mithra is the most famous ancient Iranian goddess. She was believed to watch human beings and their actions, agreements and contracts. She led people in the right path and protected them from attacks. She controlled the order prevailing in the universe.

Vayuo is the god of wind attacking evil spirits in supporting Ahuramazda’s good creatures. He reigns between the realms of Ahuramazda and Ahriman, meaning between light and darkness.

Tishtar is the god of rain originating from Varukasha Sea (Farakhkart) and distributing water among all countries.

Atar, fire, is Ahuramazda’s son. People were expected to present meat to fire as sacrifice while having a bunch of sacred plant called barsom in their hands.

Hoom is a god who presents health and power and blesses children and crops.

The Creation of Universe

Ancient Iranians believed that everything was created in a specific order beginning with heaven, water, earth, fire, human being, respectively. Some of the things created first were very well respected like the Alborz, the first mountain, Simorgh, the first bird, etc.

When the first sin was committed, the whole creation was filled with corruption and decay and replaced peace and order.

Demons & Evil Forces

Some evil forces attack human bodies directly and some indirectly. Demons are false gods and fairies are female evil spirits acting during nights. They all serve Ahriman.

Legendary Beings

Simorgh nests on the tree of all seeds and disseminates seeds by flapping wings all around the world.

Kar is a fish that lives around the tree of all seeds and keeps all harmful beings away from this tree.

Qoorbagheh, frog, tries to chew the roots of this sacred tree.

Karshaptar is a swift-winged bird that spreads Zoroaster’s words here and there.

Joghd, owl, is a bird that casts away demons by uttering holy words.

Chamroosh, a patriot bird, vanquishes lran’s adversaries and helps to spread the seeds of the tree of all seeds.

There were also some unpleasant creatures like rodents, lizards, turtles, spiders, bees, ants, beetles, etc. There were some legendary monsters against whom human heroes struggled. They were often in form of snakes or dragons the most significant of whom was called Azhdihak, a three-headed monster devouring human beings. It is called Zahak in Shahnameh.

The First Men & Heroes

Kyumars, meaning mortal, is the first legendary man who is described as a handsome and attractive man and as bright as the Sun. It is believed that he has been born out of the earth.

Hooshang is the first king founding the first legendary dynasty of Iran called Pishdadian. He promotes civilization in the world, exploits iron, uses ironsmith techniques, produces and uses tools and weapons, etc.

Jamshid is the greatest hero who is introduced as the king of the whole world. Everything is good during his ruling period.

Fereydoon, another king, is always remembered for his struggle against Zahak. He does not kill him, but imprisons him forever in the mount Damavand.

Rostam is one of the greatest mythical heroes in Shahnameh. He turns out to be the symbol of physical as well as spiritual power and devotion for his country. He is such a strong man who can defeat an elephant instantly by his mace.

Rakhsh is Rostam’s horse and the only horse whose belly does not reach the ground when Rostam presses his hand on its back. So, it is chosen by him to be his faithful servant. It passes through all hardship and battles along with Rostam and eventually dies with him.

Sohrab is Rostam’s son who grows up to be a strong brave young boy. His father, who does not know his son before giving him the last deadly blow, ultimately kills him.

Siavash is a prince who learns all the techniques and skills of princedom from Rostam. Since he refuses to answer positively to the temptations of his father’s wife, his father wants him to pass through fire to prove his innocence. This was a pre-Zoroastrianism tradition. At last, he becomes the victim of Garsivaz’ intrigues and is killed an innocent death.

Mythical Creatures

In addition to Rakhsh and Simorgh mentioned earlier, there are other mythical creatures like:

White Demon is an old demon imprisoning Kavoos, Iran’s king. After a lot of hard struggle, Rostam succeeds to kill White Demon and free the king, Kavoos.

Akvan-e-Deav is the most famous demon that attacks kings’ herds. Rostam is called for help and at last defeats it.

Ezhdeha, dragon, is another legendary creature who fights against Rostam. A more astonishing battle happens between dragon and Esfandyar, another legendary hero. Esfandyar shatters its brain into pieces in the end.

Conclusion

Ancient Iranians’ legends and myths still continue in People’s beliefs in various ways. It can be even traced in Iran’s present adjacent countries.

In fact, the secret of the survival of Iranian culture and language together with all rich traditions and social concepts can be found out in keeping these legends and myths directly or indirectly.

Written By: Rahman Mehraby

Practical mysticism is the most audaciously wanted perfection and the highest spiritual interest that expresses human relations and responsibilities within and toward himself, his community and God. It takes a spiritual journey as a way of life.

Theoretical mysticism deals with the interpretation of existence.

It relies on revelatory and heart-felt principles and bases in its reasoning. In fact, Sufism is the practical aspect of mysticism.

Islamic Mysticism

Islamic scholars believe that Islamic mysticism and Sufism are adopted from the spirit and truth of Islam, but there have also been influencing attitudes entering into it from the mysticism of other religious communities.

The Islamic school of Basra, a city in present day Iraq, in mysticism and Sufism transformed devoutly Sufism to loving Sufism. The school of Khorasan was strongly based on rebuking oneself in people and/or God’s presence. People’s approval was believed to block their hearts from stepping toward God.

There are various methods in Sufism to be on the way toward the truth:

• The method of devotion;
• The method of revelation and recognition; and,
• The method of pantheism.

The Way to Recognize The Truth

1. A Sufism disciple, in his spiritual journey, must obey his master and go through eight austere stages to get intuition that is altogether the way to recognize the truth.
2. Seeking,
3. Refining morality, including degrees like repentance, refrainment, abstention, poverty, patience, reliance, contentment and submission. It is also inclusive of undergoing some states felt by heart. They are the feelings of being in carelessness, closeness to God, love, fear, aspiration, enthusiasm, observation, assurance, certainty, and praising.
4. Having enthusiasm and anxiety,
5. Loving,
6. Getting perplexed,
7. Becoming void, and
8. Believing in one sole being.

There has been different people taking these stages in various ways and pioneered several orders of Sufism like Noorian, Hakimian, Qaderian, Sohrevardian, Molavian, Safavian, Nematollahian, Naqshbandian, etc.

Khaneqah or Khanegah

It is the residence and private place for Sufis to concentrate on their devoted life. These buildings consisted of bathhouses, stables, dance halls (ceremonial religious dancing), mosques, classrooms and a few other facilities.

Code of Dressing

A coarse cloak (Kherqeh) has been what a high spiritually ranked Sufi presented to another Sufi of lower rank. They are differently named depending upon various occasions under which they are presented to a Sufi.

Spiritual Dancing

Among some orders of Sufis, in occasions like thanksgiving, they follow an old tradition of playing music and dancing. Sama’ is a spiritual means to persuade Sufis to dance, which is mixed with spiritual rejoicing.

The Influence of Mysticism on Human Life

Mysticism and Sufism have influenced the societies they have grown in. True Sufism have put positive impacts on the others resulting in great changes like: producing balance in religions, respecting humanity, teaching uprightness and liberalism, purifying heart, associating with people, tending to cooperation and devotion, leading people toward the truth, introspecting, teaching love and kindness, ignoring the gravity of death, believing in the importance of human beings, helping religion to flourish, helping the richness of literature and so on.

Therefore, Iran’s culture is abundantly indebted its richness to the mysticism and Sufism that is still deeply rooted in its present cultural condition. Knowing mysticism helps to examine the today’s society in Iran as well as other fields impacting people’s lives.

Written By: Rahman Mehraby

These languages are still spoken in the regions beyond the present borders of Iran, from Turkey to Pamir and from Caucasus Mountains to Oman Sea.

The common origin of all these languages was spoken at least since 2000 B.C. All of them had some feature in common: Iranian lexicon and grammatical structure.

The Irano-Aryan languages are within a more general branch called Indo-European. Because of the similarities between Indian languages and Irano-Aryan languages, during the early stages of the evolution of these languages, a branch called Indo-Iranian languages has been formed.

The History of the Irano-Aryan Languages

The history of the Irano-Aryan languages is divided to three main phases:

1. Old Iranian: from early 2nd millennium to 4th & 3rd centuries B.C.
2. Middle Iranian: from 4th &3rd centuries B.C. to 8th & 9th A.D.
3. New Iranian: from 8th & 9th centuries A.D. to today.

The Old Iranian

Undoubtedly Aryan immigrants dispersed in different parts of Asia.  Other languages previously spoken in those regions subsequently influenced their language. It was the beginning of several dialects in the Irano-Aryan languages.

One of the deserts in central Iran, Kavir-e-Lut, was the dividing line between the Eastern dialects (Khorasmian, Sogdanian, Bactrian, Margianean) and the Western dialect (Median).

The only reliable source to explore the Old Iranian (Persian) language is the cuneiforms containing kings? orders and the events of that period. Avesta, the holy book of Zoroastrians, with its two dialects stands as a major source to explore the Middle Iranian (Persian).

The Middle Iranian

Between the Old Iranian and the Middle Iranian, there is a six-century gap (4th century B.C.- 3rd century A.D.) of which no written object has yet been discovered. But some fundamental changes had occurred in the whole grammar. Besides, the conjugational system had totally vanished.

The Eastern Iranian languages had also undergone such changes though in smaller scales. Most of the writings of this period were derived from Aramaic writing system. In general, the Middle Iranian was a direct continuation of the Old Iranian.

Pahlavi was the language spoken by Iranians during Parthians. When Arabs attacked Iran, Iranians spoke the Middle Persian. In Sogdiana, there were two dialects based on their religions: 1) Christian Sogdianian, and 2) Manichean Sogdianian.

Khorasmian was a language related to Sogdianian spoken at least from 3rd century A.D. to 12th and 13th centuries A.D. Between the Black sea and China, there was spoken another language, Scythian, since 1st Millennium B.C. for 2000 years. Turkish, later, replaced it. Bactrian was another language that was spoken at today?s north Afghanistan.

The New Iranian

‏‏‏The New Iranian, which was spoken in Sassanian court (Darbar) and capital, Ctesiphon, was called Dary and replaced gradually other Middle Iranian languages, specially in cities, during the 9th and 10th centuries A.D. This language has a remarkable share in the world?s culture and has introduced literary works by the people like Roodaky , Ferdosy, Khayyam, Hafez, Sa?dy, Jamy, Avicenna, etc.

It turned to become not only the literary and written language of the Persian speaking people of central Asia and Iran, but also the language of the Near East and Middle East people like Azerbaijanis, Kurds, Afghans, Indians, Central Asians, Turks, etc.

Farsi, the New Iranian, is the direct continuation of the Middle Iranian?s evolution although the grammatical system of some parts of speech, like verbs, has changed. Dary Farsi is the mother language of both contemporary literary Farsi and contemporary literary Tajiki.

Farsi Today

Today, Farsi is the language spoken and understood in all corners of Iran. It is the official language used in education and administration systems of Iran. Farsi is the mother tongue of the absolute majority of the population in Iran. Beyond the present borders of Iran, there are small groups of Farsi speaking people called Iranians.

Other Farsi Dialects Spoken Today

Tajiki dialects are referred to a large variety of dialects spoken in Afghanistan, being in connection with the Farsi dialects in central Tajiki dialects, Khorasan province dialects and Sistan province. But, Pashto is the dominant language spoken in Afghanistan. Since the former Soviet Union period, Tajiki was the language spoken by the people living in Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan. It is also the official language of Tajikistan.

Ossetic dialects are referred to the dialects spoken by Ossetians who are living in central Caucasia. Their language, including two major dialects, is the continuation of the western Scythian dialects of antiquity.

Kurdish is another Iranian language spoken by Kurds in a vast mountainous region including part of Iran, Turkey, Iraq and Syria. There are also Kurdish-speaking minor groups living in Khorasan, Central Turkey, other parts of Syria, Azerbaijan, Turkmenistan, Armenia, Georgia, etc.

Lurish and Bakhtiari dialects are spoken in the south of the region where Kurds are living in Iran.

Baluchi is mainly spoken in the historical province of Baluchestan extended from Iran to Pakistan and southern part of Afghanistan. Some Baluchi speaking-people are also living in Turkmenistan.

Tati is another dialect of Iranian language spoken in the republic of Azerbaijan and parts of Dagestan.

Taleshi is spoken in the republic of Azerbaijan and NW of Iran by the Caspian Sea.

Mazandarani and Gilaki are other dialects spoken along the southern coast of the Caspian Sea. They are the continuation of northwest Iranian dialects.

Other Dialects inside Iran

Almost all of the above said languages are spoken in different dialects. In addition, there are many other local dialects in central and western Iran that have not been satisfactorily investigated.

The geographical extents to which the Iranian languages have been transferred are, in short, indicative of the widespread Iranian culture outside of the geographical borders of present-day Iran.

Written By: Rahman Mehraby

The point of diversion between them and 12-Imam Shiite branch (the dominant branch in Iran) began after the 6th Imam, Jafar-e-Sadeq. Unlike the Twelvers who believe the 7th Imam is the 6th Imam’s son called Musa Kazem, Ismailis believe that the next righteous Imam is his other son, called Ismail.

This sect of Shiites is also called 7 Imam Shiites or Seveners, because of their belief in the 7th Imam. Ismail’s son had to follow up the leadership of his followers behind scenes, because Ismilis were afraid of their enemies especially Abbasid Caliphs. The leadership of Ismailis still goes on in a hidden manner.

Fatimids’ Caliphate

It was in 10th century that Ismailis founded a government at North Africa under the name of Fatimids Caliphate system. Since then, they turned to be a strong power in the Islamic world and grew much mightier than before. Their ruling realm was gradually expanded to other countries like Egypt, Syria, Iraq, etc as a result of summoning some people as missioners who tried to absorb more and more followers.

The Situation in Iran

Baghdad, then, was the capital of Seljuks who believed in the Sunni branch of Islam (then and now the dominant branch in the whole world of Islam). On the other hand, the Seljuks were the invaders who were defending the previous invaders, Arabs. Like Baghdad Caliphs, Seljuk invaders were Sunnis after they had converted to Islam. Although the majority of Iranians were Sunnis too, they had been treated by both of them as the invaded nation.

The caliphate system at North Africa declined, but did not collapse. Their movement was renewed and continued for another 170 years in Iran under the leadership of Hasan-e-Sabbah and his successors. He set his headquarter in a fortress up in the mountains of the central Alborz called Alamut fortress and led his followers from there. His successors maintained the leadership of Ismailis from Alamut fortress until 1256. It was in 1256 that Mongols seized the Ismailis’ castle. They had to go on with their activities for some time in a hidden way and then escape to the eastern neighboring countries, most of all, to India.

Since the leaders of Ismailis were interested very much in studying and researching, they founded a well-known library in India to which many famous researchers were attracted. When in Iran, they had also had very well-provided libraries.

Facts & Fictions

Western writers and travelers have written stories describing the beliefs and works of Ismailis that are not approved by Ismailis.

The common theme of such stories is as follow:

“There is an old man who is the head of Ismailis living in a castle high in the mountains difficult to reach. There he has made an example of how heaven has been elaborated in Koran to tempt the young sons of his subject villagers to do whatever he wants. Instead, they could enter the heaven promised by God.

This elder of mountains was as highly respected as a prophet by the villagers. Their sons of 12 to 20 years of age were sent to such fortresses to be taught of Ismailis? doctrine of Islam, to be acquainted with the quality and value of heaven (with all its tempting joys like streams of milk, honey, water and wine and beautiful female angels, etc) and to be prepared to do whatever the elder wants them to do; meaning killing an enemy by a gold-made dagger presented to them by the elder.

At the end, either killed or victorious, they could enter heaven. To start to be prepared to do their mission, they were given hashish (the Arabic word from which “assassin” has been derived) to deprive them from referring to their sound mind and have them act according to the elder’s commands.”

It is noteworthy that Ismailis are called Assassins by Westerners. The word “Assassin” comes from the Arabic word “hashish”. There was not such substance in Iran at the time of Ismailis. The Seveners of Iran did not speak Arabic and did not take hashish. So, it will not be a proper name to attribute to them.

But Ismailis reject these stories and introduce themselves as the true followers of Mohammad, the prophet of Islam. They believe that the lack of understanding of the philosophy of martyrdom in Islam by the western writers has led them astray. Ismailis were going out to different cities and countries after being trained to invite others to their religious doctrines.

Hasan-e-Sabbah was an activist of his time against the Turk invaders, Seljuks, occupying Iran and supporting Sunni Abbasid Caliphs. As a matter of fact, they were the first political oppositions who had their enemies killed.

Hasan-e-Sabbah

He was born at Qom, one of the early settlements of Arabs in Iran and a center of Twelvers in the early 11th century. He went on with his religious schooling at Rey, near Tehran, center of Ismailis activists. First he was against them, but later became the leader of them inviting others to this doctrine too. He set up his fortress at Alamut in an area where people were the last Iranians converting to Islam. The area was called Daylam and the people were always warriors disobeying Arabs and other invaders. In politics, they wanted their own independent dynasties and in religion, they wanted a branch different from that of Arab invaders.

Hasan-e-Sabbah managed to get some Seljuk officials assassinated in Iran and turn to be the major threat to ruling Seljuks. During this period of 170 years, Hasan-e-Sabbah and his successors created dreadful nightmares for the enemies of Iranians until, Hulagu, the Mongol seized the Alamut fortress.

Ismailis’ Famous Fortresses in Iran

Some of the preserved fortresses in Iran are: Alamut (north of Qazvin), Lambesar (near Shahrud river), Gerd kuh (near Esfehan), Khalenjan (near Esfehan), Meymoon Dezh (at Rudbar) and Samiran (near Manjil – the best preserved in its area out of many).

Written By: Rahman Mehraby

Games are also considered social needs internalizing social behaviors and attitudes that institutionalize law and order in players and teach them the essential skills.

No matter where games are played, they actually reflect players? wishes, needs and orientations. Therefore, games are originated from general and common needs in tribes, villages, small towns and big cities.

In a vast ancient culture like Iran with its varied climates and lifestyles, a great variety of games and entertainments have been commonly given life to its people.

The history and whereabouts of games have not been recorded. It is only by scrutinizing into old and ancient books, one can trace some of them.

There have been different factors involved in games like type, age, range, gender, number of players, location, time, roles, means, etc. Some of the games were played with a little difference or different names in several parts of Iran the profound investigation of which can open one?s eyes to the Iranians? vital needs in local or national domain.

Iranian Games in Past & Present

For instance, in ancient Persia, parents usually taught horse riding, shooting and polo game to their children among wealthy families.

Modernization and industrialization have initiated radical changes in the lives of the people all over the world. Iran is not an exception to such developments. New technologies, time-consuming everyday activities, the transformation of some games to international sports, modern human international rules, etc have all forced away the old traditional entertainments and games. People set aside the recreations of vast plains, awesome forests, high mountains and sand beaches and rush into big cities.

So, experiencing hard situations and gaining necessary skills are not so important to people anymore. New games replace old ones. Could they really put positive impacts on the mental, psychological and physical aspects of people’s lives?

Various goals have ended in different games in Iran. Here is some categorization of them:

Types of Iranian Games

“Sports Games” which demand physical motions and skills.

“Theatrical Games” which demand (semi) professional skills under the level of serious theatrical plays and are performed in parties, feasts, celebrations and similar occasions.

“Recreational Games” which target aims like amusement.

To determine who is first to start a game, there have been many ways in different parts of Iran. To choose partners for a team, there have also been several methods to be taken in various parts of Iran.

Therefore, it would help you imagine the atmospheres of the games in Iran if you know and learn some of the procedures to start and play games. Here are some examples:

Examples

No.1) To Decide Whose Turn It Is:

[God or Earth]-Bushehr province, south west of Iran.

The head of one team chooses God and the other one chooses the Earth. Then, one of them throws a ball to some middle range distance. After that, he/she goes toward the ball by laying a wooden stick on the ground several times like he/she measures the distance. While doing so, in a praying gesture, each time the stick is moved to next position, he/she says: first God, second Earth, first God, second Earth. All players are watching this. If the stick touches the ball when the word ?God? is uttered, the God team will start the game.

No.2) To Choose Partners:

[Sun or Moon]-Khorasan province, north east of Iran.

Two persons called Khans choose partners by answering players? questions. Each two players have already chosen two names, either ?the Sun? or ?the Moon?. Then, two players go to the Khans at a time asking them: Do you want the Sun or the Moon? If a Khan can point to a player and give the right answer, he will be able to take him into his team. If not, the other khan will give the right answer and take the one he wants.

No.3) Sports Games:

[Ashirma (meaning "overturn")] – Azerbaijan province, north west of Iran:

Wrestlers warm up themselves in open air while big drums are played and people are watching. Then, a referee, who has been a wrestler himself for a long time, checks the belts of two players if they are tightly tied. The one who can take the rival?s belt, lift him off the ground and throw him down will be the winner.

No.4) Theatrical Games:

[Zekr-e-Khanjar (meaning dagger praising)] ? Golestan province, north of Iran:

Two groups of people stand opposite each other in lines and the leading one stands between them. The leader sings praising religious-like songs to arouse dancers? religious passion. The others accompany him while singing and make moves in harmony with him. The movements gradually become faster. The climax is when dancers are moved with increasing emotions and meet each other in the center of a circle and each raises a dagger as a sign of brave challenge. This game is played in three stages each with its peculiar songs and movements.

Note: not all theatrical games are religious or played by men. A large number of them are the happy ones played by both sexes.

No.5) Recreational Games:

[Gol Gol (meaning flower, flower)] – Sistan and Baluchestan, south east of Iran:

Two people are chosen as heads of two five-people teams. A piece of land with a limited distance is assigned for the game. The heads choose the name of a flower without others noticing it. Then, they ask both teams? members one at a time and in turn: Flower, flower, which flower of flowers? The asked players must guess different flower names. The heads can lead them toward the right answer. The winner of the game will be the team whose member could have given the right answer. The loser team?s members must carry the winner team?s members on their backs all along the specified distance.

The Great Variety of Iranian Games

Altogether there are around 2500 various recorded games in Iran. At least hundreds of them are not repetitive with different names. First they might seem quite simple unimportant games, but they can each reflect various cultures of different corners of Iran. It is worth notifying that the cultural, social, climatic, historical, geographical and many other aspects of each locality are the determining factors of the games played there.

Written By: Rahman Mehraby

Traditional Sports Photo Gallery > A beautiful set of B/W photos of this sport in Iran by an Iranian photographer, Mr. Amir Hossein Mahmoodi.

The surprising point is the fact that this chronometry, which was carried out more than 3700 years ago, complies precisely with today?s calculations in mathematics and physics.

We are now sure that chronometry had first been lunar. Later it became solar lunar in which years were solar and months were lunar.

Old & New Avestan Chronometry Methods

Some say that Iranian chronometry calculated based on solar & lunar methods has been derived from Babylonia. Some say it has nothing to do with Babylonia and is independently Iranian. But the chronometry performed in 1725 B.C. is a solar-based one referred to as Old Avestan Chronometry (OAC) and the one that started during the reign of Darius is called New Avestan Chronometry (NAC).

The calculation of the leap year in NAC was very difficult and needed corrections. So 10 years after the advent of Islam when Yazdgerd III took power in Iran, he ordered NAC to be changed into a new method, called it Yazdgerdy calendar and stepped up to the throne on the first day of the first month of that year.

After the collapse of Sassanians by Arabs many Zoroastrians emigrated to India and Pakistan. They are still using Yazdgerdy calendar for their private activities and the official calendar of the country for other works.

OAC is one of the wonders of science beginning almost 40 centuries ago. Without any sophisticated instruments, the genius people of the time could work out a precise calendar. To examine the solar beams of light and their shades for chronometry, they had built special buildings through which the 62 degrees E meridian was passing. In ancient world, Nimrooz was the indicating base of chronometry.

The 62 degrees E meridian was considered 0 degree then, but tens of centuries later another spot on the Earth, Greenwich, replaced this point and Nimrooz was regarded as situated on the 62 degrees E meridian.

Zarathustra is also said to have observed in this observatory and a small structure near that building is believed to be his tomb according to local people.

Calendar Buildings in Iran

In addition to these structures, there are many other ancient structures used as observatories like Chogha Zanbil ziggurat near Susa and Zarathustra?s ka?be (cube) near Persepolis. Also some believe that tens of other structures believed to be holy buildings, fire temples (called Chahar Taqy meaning four-arched building), had been used as calendar buildings.

Time Division in Old Avestan Calendar (OAC)

According to OAC, time is divided as follows:

There are 2820-year periods. Each period consists of:

1. 21 X 28-years periods. 128 years equals: 1X 29-years period plus 3 X 33-years period.
2. 01 X 32-years period. 132 years equals: 1 X 29-years period and 2 X 33-years period plus 1 X 37-years period.

Jalaly Calendar

It was 29 centuries later when Omar Khayyam, the famous Iranian poet and mathematician understood this calculation and wrote it down.

Since Jalal-ed-din Malek Shah had ordered a precise calendar to be regulated it was called Jalaly calendar. So the origin of the present Jalaly calendar in Iran goes back to the calculations in 1725 B.C, which is the most precise one in the world, according to contemporary scholars.

Written By: Rahman Mehraby

The Categorization of Feasts in Iran

Here is a categorization of the gatherings in Iran:

1. Ancient, Mythical and seasonal feasts;
2. Religious feasts;
3. National and Governmental feasts;
4. Family feats; and,
5. Regional feasts.

The most commonly celebrated feasts, at present, in Iran are briefly introduced here.

Since ancient times, many feasts were accompanied by myths or legends as their sources of origination like Norooz, Tirgan, Mehrgan, Yalda and Sadeh.

Some Ceremonies in Iran

Norooz

When the Sun reaches the vernal equinox on the meridian, the 20th or 21st of March, days and nights are approximately equal. This very same day has long been called Norooz (“no” means new and “rooz” means day). Since thousands of years ago, Iranians knew this and regarded it as the first day of the New Year in Iranian solar calendar.

The first mythical king, Jamshid, is said to have celebrated this occasion as the beginning of his establishing justice and defeating demons.

To celebrate Norooz, there are some preparatory traditions observed by Iranians like: last Wednesday feast (firecrackers, etc), deceased day and the last Thursday (Honoring the Deceased in the cemeteries, etc), khaneh tekany (house cleaning, etc), cereal planting, haftseen (special combination of symbolic stuff at everyone’s home), new clothes, Norooz dishes, visiting each other, the first Norooz, Norooz presents, Norooz post cards, Sizdah-Beh-Dar (national day for picnicking) and so forth.

Tirgan

At the evening of the 12th day of the fourth month of their own calendar (Tir), the 2nd or 3rd of July, people in Mazandaran province celebrate Tirgan. Tir means arrow and Titgan refers to the occasion when Arash, the legendary bowman, shot an arrow to indicate the borderline between Iran and Turan. Arash lost his entire energy and died afterward. The feast includes many traditions like plays, poem reading, singing, eating, drinking, etc.

Mehrgan

Mehr is the 7th month of Iranian calendar, app Sept 21st to Oct 20th, and the name of the goddess of the Sun. At this harvest time, Zoroastrian people in Kerman celebrate the occasion by sacrificing a sheep or a chicken and honor it by feasting, etc.

Yalda (Chelleh)

It is the longest night of the year, the 21st or 22nd of September, and as some believe, the birthday of Mehr the undefeatable. They said at the end of this night, darkness is defeated and light gains victory. It is also the day of harvesting crops and the beginning of farmers’ rest period.

People gather together in the house of the eldest member of the entire family enjoying themselves eating summer fruits as well as nuts. They also read poems of Hafez and have a lot of chat.

Sadeh

It means emergence and refers to forty days after the birth of Mehr, 10th of Bahman (Jan 29th or 30th). People celebrate this occasion by setting huge fire outside some cities that, of course, can be interpreted differently. It is not celebrated by the whole nation nowadays.

Sadeh is a very ancient non-religious celebratory occasion during which all religions take part in the feast, have a special soup, and eat nuts and fruits. They all wear colorful clothes and make-ups and enjoy themselves.

Pir-e-Chak-Chak

It is a pilgrimage site for the Zoroastrians from all around the world who gather together at the 62km northeast of Yazd at the heart of desert once a year in the 21st or 22nd of June.

During their stay there, they go two or three times to the temple with their heads covered. They burn candles, pray, vow, wear special white dresses and bands around their waists. Votive soup and bread are served for everyone in addition to other foodstuff.

It is also a time for renewing the meetings, entertaining, water sprinkling, etc. Note that water sprinkling is customary in different parts of Iran during Norooz or other feasts.

Qara Kelisa

It is a famous ancient church near Maku, West Azerbaijan province in Iran. Qara Kelisa or Tade’oos church is a pilgrimage site for the Armenians who go there as groups or families after mid August each year.

They stay there at least for three days of feasting, praying, singing in choir, entertaining, dancing, horse/mule/donkey ridding, etc.

Armenians who converted to Christianity in 300 were an ethnic group within the Iranian empire and Tade’oos is said to have been Jesus disciple who was evangelizing, was martyred and buried there. Later, this church was built at his burial place.

Carpet Washing in Mashad-e-Ardehal

To commemorate the martyrdom of one the descendants of the 5th Imam of Shiite Twelvers, people around Ardehal and Kashan perform a special ceremony once a year. It includes washing the carpet of his mausoleum in the spring nearby to commemorate the event during which the dead body was wrapped in a carpet and later the carpet was washed there.

During the ceremony, people also damn his enemies who murdered him and wave clubs up in the air to show their feeling of hatred toward his enemies. The feast includes going on picnic, shopping, etc. But it is a very unique feast because of its peculiar ceremonies.

Other Sites & Rites

There are thousands of tombs in Iran in which the descendants of Imams are buried. That is why there are called Imamzadeh (born of Imam). They are pilgrimage sites for Shiites, both local and non-local people. Some of the buildings of these tombs are very old, for example, 800 year old.

In each area of Iran, various ethnic and religious groups are living at the same neighborhood. Therefore, there can be found different varieties of the same feasts or different local ones.

Written By: Rahman Mehraby

Later, they were roofed and changed into present forms we see today in some parts of the world. Bazaars can be seen in almost all of old cities and towns of Iran. They are still in function.

Definitions of Bazaar-Related Terms:

To better understand the function of bazaars, we need to get acquainted with some words and terms used in Farsi. Here are some of the commonly used ones:

1. Rasteh Bazaar: It refers to the main passageway with shops of the same guilds.
2. Dalan: It is a corridor that connects passageways in a straight or non-straight way.
3. Qeisarieh: It is a passageway in which light-weighed and expensive goods are sold.
4. Tim & Timcheh: They refer to large and small, enclosed areas in which heavy-weighed and expensive goods are sold. The roofs in such structures are most beautifully decorated implementing various fields of art.
5. Carevansara: It is the sleeping place for travelers, sometimes used as a warehouse. Offices can be at the same area too.
6. Sara: It functions as a caravansary, but the goods there are samples and small items. Offices and warehouses are in this one place. Like caravansaries, wholesalers work in Saras.
7. Chaharsu/Charsu: It is an intersection where two Rastehs of a big bazaar meet. They are architecturally built as beautifully as possible. It is served as the station of the head guard of a bazaar.
8. Bazarcheh: It is a roofed bazaar in a smaller scale at any quarter of a city where local people can easily do shopping.
9. Bazaary: it refers to a person who has a business in a bazaar as a merchant, wholesaler, retailer, broker, money exchanger, etc.

The biggest square of a city was situated at the entrance or exit of a bazaar like Naqsh-e-Jahan Sq. in Esfehan.

Therefore, in a more general and comprehensive sense, a bazaar consists of a set of roofed stores along with passageways and corridors as well as caravansaries, Saras, Timchehs, etc. There are also other public services like bathhouses, schools and mosques and so on in the same complex to satisfy various needs of the people inside bazaars.

Arrangement of Shops in Iranian Bazaars

People belonging to different walks of life were living near or far from bazaars. Bazaars were either too live or too dead quarters of a city at various times or occasions.

Knowing all above said information is not enough to come to feel the life inside bazaars. We need to know:

Social Aspects of Iranian Bazaars

People of the same guild have to have their shops next to each other to prevent any disturbances or add to their security. Bazaaries have played key roles in the policies of Iran, because the main means of economy used to be bazaars. Today, as a result of modernization, they are gradually losing their former influence.

There are various jobs for those who are working inside bazaars like, merchants, distributors, brokers, money exchangers, porters, etc. It will not be precise to introduce all bazaaries as one, but there are lots of characteristics in common among them. Many of the people still working in bazaars are not educated compared to the other guilds of Iranian society. They know enough to run their own business. Also, the quality of life among those guilds inside the bazaars who make a lot of money is usually lower than middle-class educated people outside bazaars.

As the cities are growing in a huge scale in Iran, the distances are growing longer and longer within them. Therefore, it will be quite time consuming to take a trip from a spot in a large city to the other spot where the bazaar of the city is located. So, people prefer to go shopping in their neighborhood unless they need to buy plenty of items. Then, it will be worth to take such a trip and time to buy things all in a place and relatively cheaper.

Temporary Bazaars in Iran

In addition, in villages or less populated spots, there are two other types of temporary bazaars: 1) Seasonal bazaars, and 2) Day bazaars.

1. “Seasonal bazaars” are the gatherings in which some of the seasons? products are temporarily put to sale. They still can be found in some areas of Iran.
2. “Day bazaars” are the gatherings held once a week in the areas with dispersed population, like in various corners of north Iran or desert areas. One may see entertainers, tea sellers, colorfully dressed people and many other attractions producing an atmosphere like shopping festivals, but in a traditional way.

Written By: Rahman Mehraby

The common factors creating the vernacular architecture in Iranian plateau are climate and accessible constructional materials. The prevailing climate in the region is harshly hot or cold. Most of the time, it is also extremely dry with desert soil covering the major part of lands. Generally, rainfall is not enough and earthquakes have always been potential threats. Mud and brick are major materials used for constructing various structures, because the earth can be found everywhere quite easily and inexpensively.

Ceilings are mostly built in the form of cupolas and vaults, walls are usually thick and windows have to be made in small sizes. The reasons should be sought in the common factors mentioned and explained before.

In addition to the general features of architecture in the Iranian plateau, there are special structures built that need to be referred here:

Pigeon Towers

The purpose of building such towers had merely been collecting pigeons? excrements to be used as fertilizer or as an ingredient for producing gunpowder.

The main issue was to build as many pigeon nests inside as possible with the least materials.

The architecture of these seemingly simple structures was not void of art and calculations although economic consideration should have been taken.

Icehouses

Icehouses were built for reserving snow and ice for summer use. Supplying ice in the plateau had been very hard. Warm season was long and cold season short. Drinkable water was not enough. Snow-covered mountains were not available everywhere. The difference in altitude made it even harder to carry snow down to low areas.

A ditch, a wall and a thick storage structure were the intelligent solution to supply and reserve ice for later use.

There were some technical and cultural aspects involved as well, like any other structures, which are quite interesting.

Water Reservoirs

To efficiently collect and reserve water has never been any possible task to do unless a great amount of experience has been gained throughout centuries. Supplying water by kariz (qanat), man-made subterranean aqueduct system, has been common in ancient Iran. Water supplied in this way must be kept in an appropriate structure, a water reservoir.

Water reservoir is a deep circular insulated pit covered by a dome and accessed by a stairway leading down to its entrance. A barrel-vaulted ceiling covered this stairway.

Water could be kept cool and clean with the help of some local techniques.

Wind Tower (Wind Catcher)

I should explain that wind catcher is one of the most famous and spectacular elements in pure Iranian architecture. It is a chimney-like structure usually erected in couples from the bottom of houses or water reservoirs up to an elevation a little higher than its roof. They work like a ventilation system bringing the temperature of inside houses or water reservoirs around 20 C lower than outside.

Unfortunately, vernacular structures in Iran are subject to destruction for some reasons. But, one can still see a great number of them that are indicative of people?s need and interest in them.

Written By: Rahman Mehraby

The main constructional material, brick, has always been easily accessible and relatively cheap. It has been processed as sun dried or fired bricks. A layer of glaze on bricks has proved effective against moisture caused by rain or all agents. Glazed surfaces remain cold, do not absorb dust and are easy to clean. Moreover, they have helped the beauty of structures as colorful shining works of art.

The Early Tile Making  in Post-Islam Period

There were also two kinds of glazing produced: alkaline glazing and lead-tin glazing. Finding out an appropriate proportion to produce each of them required a lot of experiments and experiences. Coloring the second type demanded some colorful additives. They were usually turquoise, green, blue, brown, black, yellow or dark purple colored.

The oldest tile works of 11th century followed the style of combining turquoise rectangular glazed bricks on plain black backgrounds.

Then, the range of colors was extended till it included blue as well.

Seljuk Period

One of the early styles of tile working was to combine non-glazed and glazed bricks in a composition used on walls, ceilings, roofs or columns in Seljuk period. Such bricks were made by mixing clay with sand containing essential minerals in various proportions in different pants of Iran. Bricks were once heated in kilns up to 750 C to be changed into solid light-colored ones.

Iranians became familiar with a different kind of tile work imported from china in 12th century. So, they implemented a new formula to produce tiles consisting of Quartz, filler and an alkaline powder. When heated in a kiln, such mixture produced solid clay. Different proportions made various colors and textures. All the raw materials could have been found in central Iran.

Mosaic Work

The next reasonably evolutionary change ended up in mosaic tiles. The total design was divided into tinier single-colored pieces each cut from a colored glazed tile. The small pieces were fixed into their panels by adding a condensed chalk mortar on their backs. This method was made use of for creating a painted design or portal inscription improved during Timurids. While Safavid and Qajar structures were built, architects extensively selected this method.

Polychrome Tiles

In another method, several colors were painted on or under glazed layers. It was more easily and rapidly done than the previous method. They did not have to cut the edges of each piece in a fixable manner.

The motifs like birds, flowers, arabesques or animals were completely painted on one piece of tile and heated again. This method was abundantly used in the constructional projects of Shah Abbas I.

Luster-Painted Tiles

This is a method started in 12th century. It was the method of painting on glazed layers. The motifs were painted on a surface covered by silver and copper oxides as well as a mixture of sulfur, ocher and vinegar. When put into a kiln for the second time, the said minerals were melted into the final glaze, ocher was removed and a shining metal-like golden color was left on the tile.

There were also different other methods for making tiles peculiar to various regions or periods. But the major tiles made in Iran are those mentioned earlier.

The colors produced were different from area to area depending on several factors like the accessibility to certain minerals or raw materials, masters’ tastes, purposes of designs, etc. The traditional motifs were all through the history revived into new forms or repeated.

During 19th century, under European influence, new patterns were painted on tiles unfamiliar to the Iranian culture. But, of course, Iranian artists created them.

Written By: Rahman Mehraby

Naturally, people’s tendencies developed toward amusement and caused the early forms of theater to lose their religious shells.

Theater in Iran before Islam

Some early examples of plays in Iran must have started in prehistoric era while harvesting crops, hunting animals, round-the-fire evenings, etc. It started by dances, narrations, storytelling and so on. Several principle features of this period were transferred to historic periods plays like make-up, mask wearing, act, gestures and performance agreements.

Later, some heroic and mythical characters formed the themes of theaters like Siavash, Rostam, etc. In some cases, the groups of actors accompanied army expeditions to dance war dances both to amuse the troops and arouse their fighting spirits. There must have been theater places at least in Ecbatana and Kerman.

After Alexander’s invasion to Iran, Greek theater influenced Iranians’.

Historical events like Geomatai the magi being killed by Darius the great, seasonal changes like the end of winter time and other important occasions made their ways into peoples festivals, games and celebrations that could ultimately develop ancient communities’ theatrical interests toward a better established art.

During Sassanians, some thousands of gypsy actors, actresses, singers, musicians and puppeteers came to Iran from India and dispersed in various corners of the empire to present their art, which later formed one of the solid foundations of Iranian theater.

Theater in Iran after Islam

After Arabs’ invasion to Iran, as they did not know anything about theater, they could not present theirs to Iranians or ban it. Therefore, the religious intermediaries, clergymen, prohibited theater by their personal interpretations of the verses of Koran or similar traditions. Apparently, it was considered interfering with God’s creation to create a character in a play, but as the creative taste of acting could not be suppressed, it could find other ways to express itself within the next two or three centuries in a more closed way.

People’s hatred against bully superiors and their wishes formed the themes of the plays performed by gypsies.

Religious Theater (Ta’azieh)

During Moharram (a month in lunar calendar) which was the mourning period for the martyrdom of the third Imam of Shiite Muslims, some specific ceremonies began to commemorate his martyrdom. They were later held in a more organized way. The ceremonies were rooted in the old traditions of mourning for Siavash in ancient Iran as it had consisted the same themes and forms.

The interesting points in these religious gatherings are the harmony and gentleness of group movements, their act-like states and at times their dances combined with mourning songs choir. Decoration and clothing were also gained attention by directors.

During Safavid period, Iranian theater became more popular and part of people’s routine entertainment.

It was at the same time that imitation was developed in various forms to amuse people. Plays were not written. So, governmental officials could not arrest theater people for what they had said or acted based on documents. Of course, sometimes, it was the government’s policy to let people feel free to prevent explosions.

The re-emergence of Iranian Theater

The clowns penetrated people’s hearts as well as those of kings. Therefore, there were special clowns for some kings in their courts. Generally, there were some independent theaters in Iran after Islam: storytelling, puppet plays, ta’azieh and joyful plays.

Epic stories, religious stories and then epic-religious stories were narrated for people by storytellers in public places like squares, coffee shops or tea houses, etc. Storytellers kept Iranian poems transferred to illiterate people as well.

Mongols and Ottomans largely influenced Iranian puppet plays, but later some old Iranian themes were played in new forms.

Ta’azieh became one of the best-organized popular plays in Iran that was Imam Hossein’s commemorative ceremonies together with passion plays in which early post-Islam period’s events were acted. Little by little, plays started to be written and recorded.

Joyful plays were revived as people’s inner needs grew to compensate for all bitter moments of real life. So, the society was mocked and ridiculed – criticism.

Gypsy performers started to settle instead of hawking. Some buildings were used for theaters temporarily. Later, they became permanent ones.

European Influence

European theater influenced Iranian one, but the imitation of them started to make people interested in Europe. This imitation was carried out in weak manner. Iranian theater was overwhelmed by the new themes, costumes, etc. So, two different classes of people cared for traditional and so-called intellectual theaters: the first group in poor quarters of cities and the second in the best financial state.

Women who have been banned from acting in the public had their own private circles, which stopped when theater actresses went on stage in the 20th century.

Written By: Rahman Mehraby